James Clerk Maxwell

James Clerk Maxwell FRSE FRS (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a renowned Scottish physicist whose work spanned a wide array of scientific domains. He is most celebrated for formulating the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, unifying electricity, magnetism, and light as varied manifestations of the same fundamental phenomenon. This pivotal concept, encapsulated in Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism, represents one of the paramount unifications in physics, second only to the work of Isaac Newton.

In 1865, through his seminal work “A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field”, Maxwell posited that electric and magnetic fields propagate as waves at the speed of light. He further suggested that light itself is a wave within the same medium responsible for electrical and magnetic occurrences. This groundbreaking synthesis of light and electric phenomena paved the way for his prediction of radio waves. Maxwell's work also laid the cornerstone for the burgeoning field of electrical engineering.

In addition to his electromagnetic contributions, Maxwell played a key role in formulating the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, elucidating the kinetic theory of gases using statistical methods. Notably, in 1861, he introduced the world to the first long-lasting colour photograph and also made substantial contributions to the analysis of the sturdiness of trusses, akin to those employed in numerous bridges.

His pioneering work set the stage for modern physics, establishing the groundwork for revolutionary domains like special relativity and quantum mechanics. Many in the scientific community view Maxwell as the 19th-century luminary whose influence on 20th-century physics was unparalleled. His scientific contributions stand shoulder to shoulder with giants like Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. A millennium poll, surveying distinguished physicists, placed Maxwell as the third all-time greatest physicist, following only Newton and Einstein. Marking the 100th anniversary of Maxwell's birth, Einstein paid homage to his predecessor, describing his contributions as the most transformative in physics since Newton's era. During a 1922 visit to the University of Cambridge, when Einstein was commended for building on Newton's legacy, he humbly responded, “No I don't. I stand on the shoulders of Maxwell.”

Life

James Clerk Maxwell: The Early Years (1831-1839)

The birthplace of James Clerk Maxwell, located at 14 India Street in Edinburgh, has been transformed into a museum managed by the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation, commemorating his legacy.

Born on 13 June 1831 in Edinburgh, James Clerk Maxwell was the son of John Clerk Maxwell of Middlebie, a distinguished advocate, and Frances Cay, the daughter of Robert Hodshon Cay and sibling of John Cay. The Clerk family lineage from Penicuik boasted a baronetcy, with Maxwell's paternal uncle being the 6th baronet. Initially named “John Clerk”, the name “Maxwell” was appended following the inheritance of the Middlebie estate, a property in Dumfriesshire traditionally held by the Maxwells.

James's connections extended into various fields; he was a first cousin to Jemima Blackburn, a renowned artist, and the civil engineer William Dyce Cay. The bond he shared with Cay was particularly strong, evident when Cay stood beside Maxwell as his best man during his wedding.

Both of Maxwell's parents embarked on matrimony later in life. Interestingly, Frances was nearing 40 when she gave birth to James. Before him, they had a daughter, Elizabeth, whose life was tragically cut short during infancy.

The family later relocated to Glenlair in Kirkcudbrightshire, a property sprawled across 1,500 acres which the Maxwells had constructed. From a tender age, James displayed an insatiable curiosity. By three, he was captivated by anything that moved, glittered, or made a sound, constantly questioning its operation. His mother, in a note added to a letter penned by his father in 1834, captured the essence of his early wonder:

“From his youthful days, James was a beacon of happiness, showing significant improvement as the seasons turned milder. Doors, locks, and keys never ceased to fascinate him, with the phrase 'show me how it does' becoming a frequent refrain. He was relentless in his pursuit of understanding, tracing the paths of hidden streams or figuring out the mechanics of bell-wires and waterways.”

Maxwell's early years laid the foundation for a lifetime of inquiry, eventually positioning him as a towering figure in the world of science.

James Clerk Maxwell's Academic Journey (1839-1847)

In the Victorian era, it was customary for women in the household to assume the role of educators for their children, and Maxwell's mother, Frances, was no exception. Recognizing his innate brilliance, she became the guiding force behind his early lessons. By the age of eight, Maxwell had already committed to memory long excerpts from John Milton's writings and could recite the entire 119th psalm. His deep-rooted knowledge of the scriptures was evident as he could pinpoint chapter and verse of numerous psalm quotations. However, tragedy struck in December 1839 when Frances succumbed to abdominal cancer, leaving young Maxwell at the age of eight. From there, his father, accompanied by his aunt Jane, became the stewards of his academic path.

Initially, Maxwell's educational journey had its stumbling blocks. His first tutor, a young 16-year-old, proved ineffectual, often rebuking Maxwell for perceived slowness. This unfortunate arrangement was short-lived, ending in 1841. A pivotal moment in Maxwell's early exposure to science occurred when his father introduced him to Robert Davidson's demonstration on electric propulsion and magnetic forces in 1842.

Subsequently, Maxwell was enrolled at the esteemed Edinburgh Academy. During his schooling years, he resided with his aunt Isabella. While there, his cousin Jemima fueled his love for drawing. Young Maxwell faced challenges integrating into the school's environment, largely due to his rural upbringing and distinct Galloway accent. His homemade attire on his first school day earned him the nickname “Daftie”, which he bore gracefully over the years. However, this phase of isolation ended when he forged bonds with peers Lewis Campbell and Peter Guthrie Tait—both destined for scholarly greatness—forming friendships that lasted a lifetime.

From an early age, Maxwell showcased a proclivity for geometry, even decoding the mysteries of regular polyhedra before any formal education on the topic. Though his inherent talent remained under the radar initially, by 13, he clinched the school's top honors in mathematics, English, and poetry. Maxwell's academic pursuits transcended the confines of a typical curriculum, often sidelining exam preparations in favor of broader learning. This academic curiosity culminated in him authoring a scientific paper at just 14, proposing a mechanical method for sketching mathematical curves using twine. This paper, “On the description of oval curves and those having a plurality of foci”, was submitted to the Royal Society of Edinburgh on his behalf since his tender age prevented him from doing so personally. While Maxwell's exploration on multifocal ellipses was not the first of its kind—René Descartes had broached the topic in the 17th century—Maxwell's approach streamlined their depiction.

University of Edinburgh, 1847–1850

At a youthful age of 16, Maxwell wrapped up his studies at the Academy and embarked on his academic journey at the University of Edinburgh. While he had a golden opportunity to study at the renowned University of Cambridge, Maxwell chose to stay committed to Edinburgh for his undergraduate pursuits. His learning was enriched by the presence of esteemed scholars: under the tutelage of Sir William Hamilton, he delved into logic and metaphysics; Philip Kelland illuminated the path of mathematics for him, and James Forbes introduced him to the wonders of natural philosophy. Given Maxwell's prodigious intellect, the courses weren’t particularly challenging, which granted him ample free time. He utilized this period for self-driven research, especially during his visits to his ancestral home, Glenlair.

In Glenlair, a world of experimentation awaited Maxwell. He dabbled in rudimentary chemical, electric, and magnetic experiments. However, his predominant intrigue lay in the realm of polarized light. Using intricately crafted gelatine blocks and a set of polarizing prisms—a generous gift from William Nicol—he observed mesmerizing color patterns within the gelatine. This endeavor led him to the groundbreaking discovery of photoelasticity, a novel technique to discern stress patterns within various materials.

By the age of 18, Maxwell's scholarly prowess was evident. He authored two papers for the distinguished Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. One, focusing on the equilibrium of elastic solids, would later be the bedrock for his revelation about the temporary double refraction in viscous liquids when subjected to shear stress. His other work on “Rolling Curves” echoed his earlier research endeavors. Due to his young age, he was deemed a tad too green to present his research personally. Thus, his mentor, Kelland, proudly showcased Maxwell's genius to the Royal Society on his behalf.

University of Cambridge, 1850–1856

In 1850, the budding mathematician James Maxwell set his sights beyond Scotland and ventured to the University of Cambridge. Initially, he enrolled at Peterhouse but soon found himself transferring to Trinity, believing it would pave a smoother path to a fellowship. While at Trinity, he became a member of the Cambridge Apostles, a clandestine society for the intellectual crème de la crème. It was here, through debates and essays, that he extensively explored the interrelation between his Christian faith and scientific understanding.

Maxwell was unyielding in his quest for knowledge, advocating for an unprejudiced examination of all subjects. He believed that Christianity, in its truest form, offered unparalleled freedom of exploration and was devoid of restrictive taboos. He expressed concern that many perceived the Old Testament as “tabooed,” and he looked forward to a time when enlightened understanding would banish unfounded fears and misconceptions.

One summer, Maxwell spent time recuperating from illness at the Suffolk residence of Rev C.B. Tayler. Profoundly influenced by the family's devout love for God, he felt a renewed sense of purpose. This transformative period was evident in his letters where he introspectively wrote about his spiritual struggles and the refuge he found in science, society, and ultimately, in God.

During his time at Cambridge, he trained under the mentorship of William Hopkins, renowned for grooming mathematical prodigies. In 1854, Maxwell's brilliance was evident when he graduated second in his class, narrowly missing the top spot to Edward Routh. However, in the rigorous Smith's Prize examination, the two were deemed equals. Post-graduation, Maxwell read one of his rare mathematical papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Society, reflecting his evolving reputation as a mathematician.

Opting to stay at Trinity, Maxwell sought a fellowship. While the process was typically lengthy, his undeniable talent ensured his relative freedom to delve into his scientific passions. One such interest was the nature of color, a subject he had begun exploring under the guidance of James Forbes at Edinburgh. Using Forbes' innovative colored tops, Maxwell illustrated that white light was a fusion of red, green, and blue light. His findings were later presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, with Maxwell himself taking the podium.

By October 1855, in a departure from tradition, Maxwell was promptly named a fellow of Trinity. Tasked with preparing lectures on various subjects, his growing reputation attracted attention. Encouraged by Forbes, Maxwell applied for a prestigious position at Marischal College in Aberdeen. Unfortunately, during this pivotal period, Maxwell's father passed away, never knowing that his son would soon secure the esteemed professorship at Aberdeen, a position he assumed in late 1856.

Marischal College, Aberdeen, 1856–1860

At the youthful age of 25, James Clerk Maxwell was an anomaly at Marischal College, being at least a decade and a half younger than any other professor there. Undaunted by this age gap, he enthusiastically embraced his role, meticulously designing the syllabus and prepping lectures. Impressively, he dedicated 15 hours each week to lecturing, which included offering a complimentary lecture to the local workers' college. During the academic year, Maxwell resided in Aberdeen alongside his cousin, the civil engineer William Dyce Cay. The idyllic summers were spent at Glenlair, a legacy from his late father.

Maxwell's gaze was soon drawn to a celestial mystery that had baffled scientists for centuries: the very nature of Saturn's rings. Their continued stability was an enigma, raising questions about why they didn’t disintegrate, stray, or descend into Saturn. This very problem was aptly chosen as the subject for the 1857 Adams Prize by St John's College, Cambridge. Immersing himself in this challenge, Maxwell ingeniously deduced that a singular solid ring wouldn't be stable, and a fluid one would fragment into droplets. Observing neither phenomenon, he theorized that the rings were an assembly of countless tiny particles, each orbiting Saturn independently. Maxwell's ground-breaking essay on the topic secured him the Adams Prize in 1859. His conclusions were so compelling that the famed astronomer George Biddell Airy remarked on the unparalleled application of mathematics to the physical world. Maxwell's hypotheses stood unchallenged until the 1980s, when Voyager's observations vindicated his theory. However, recent understandings indicate that Saturn's gravitational pull is slowly consuming these ring particles, predicting their complete dissolution in about 300 million years.

1857 also marked the beginning of a heartwarming chapter in Maxwell's life. Introduced to Katherine Mary Dewar through her father, the Reverend Daniel Dewar, Maxwell soon found himself smitten. Despite their seven-year age gap, with Katherine being the elder, the duo got engaged in early 1858 and exchanged vows that June in Aberdeen. The couple shared more than marital bonds; Katherine actively participated in Maxwell's scientific endeavors, particularly in viscosity experiments. Described as a marriage of “unparalleled devotion” by Maxwell’s biographer, Lewis Campbell, much about Katherine remains a mystery.

By 1860, an institutional merger between Marischal College and King's College birthed the University of Aberdeen. This consolidation left no room for two Natural Philosophy professors, and despite Maxwell's soaring scientific repute, he faced redundancy. His attempt to secure a position at Edinburgh was thwarted, but fortune favored him with the Chair of Natural Philosophy at King's College, London. Surviving a harrowing bout of smallpox that same year, he, alongside his wife, relocated to London.

King's College, London, 1860–1865

James Clerk Maxwell's tenure at King's College in London was a pivotal epoch, arguably the zenith of his illustrious career. His trailblazing endeavors during this period didn't go unnoticed. In 1860, the Royal Society, a beacon of scientific acclaim, awarded Maxwell the esteemed Rumford Medal, recognizing his groundbreaking contributions to the study of color. A year later, the Society further embraced him by offering him membership, a nod to his ascending eminence in the scientific community.

During these transformative years, Maxwell unveiled a pioneering marvel: the world's first color photograph impervious to light fading. His intellectual curiosities also led him to refine his hypotheses on the viscosity of gases. Moreover, he spearheaded an innovative system to define physical quantities, which today is recognized as 'dimensional analysis'.

While at King's, the Royal Institution became a regular haunt for Maxwell, where he frequently attended lectures. It was here that his path intersected with the iconic Michael Faraday. While a close camaraderie might have eluded them, primarily due to the significant age gap of 40 years and Faraday's declining health, a mutual admiration was palpable. They regarded each other as titans in their respective fields, creating an atmosphere of mutual respect.

However, Maxwell's contributions during this era weren't limited to mere accolades and associations. This period was particularly luminous for his revelations in electricity and magnetism. Maxwell's 1861 magnum opus, “On physical lines of force,” presented an intricate tapestry of the electric and magnetic realms. His portrayal of electromagnetic induction was poetic yet scientific, visualizing it as minuscule whirls of magnetic flux. This seminal paper later saw two additional sections in 1862. The first dove deep into the intricacies of electrostatics and displacement current. The subsequent segment explored the mesmerizing dance of light polarization in a magnetic arena, a phenomenon discovered by Faraday and christened as the 'Faraday effect' in his honor. Maxwell's deep dive into these realms not only advanced the understanding of these phenomena but also cemented his legacy as a paragon in the world of physics.

Later years, 1865–1879

In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell, a luminary in the world of physics, stepped down from his position at King's College, London. Choosing the tranquillity of Glenlair, he relocated there alongside his devoted wife, Katherine. The next few years saw Maxwell in a flurry of innovation. His 1868 paper, “On governors,” was a groundbreaking treatise where he delineated the mechanics of governors, the integral devices regulating steam engine speeds. This pivotal work essentially laid the foundations of control engineering. Delving into structural dynamics in 1870, he explored the resilience of lattice designs in “On reciprocal figures, frames and diagrams of forces.” As a dedicated educator, he penned the influential “Theory of Heat” in 1871, and by 1876, presented “Matter and Motion.” Significantly, Maxwell pioneered the concept of dimensional analysis in 1871.

In a triumphant return to Cambridge in 1871, Maxwell was christened as the inaugural Cavendish Professor of Physics. With this esteemed title, he shouldered the monumental task of orchestrating the construction of the Cavendish Laboratory, right from its architectural inception to populating it with state-of-the-art apparatus. One of Maxwell's crowning achievements in his later years was editing and annotating the pioneering research of Henry Cavendish. This exercise unveiled Cavendish's profound investigations into subjects like Earth's density and the molecular makeup of water. The American Philosophical Society recognized Maxwell's brilliance by electing him as a member in 1876.

Tragically, in April 1879, the first ominous signs of Maxwell's terminal illness emerged. On 5 November 1879, at the age of 48, Maxwell succumbed to abdominal cancer, a cruel fate that had previously claimed his mother at the same age. Those around him during his final days were awestruck by his vivid memory and unwavering faith. Embracing Christianity, Maxwell found solace and profound understanding in the teachings of Christ, which he believed surpassed any philosophical ideology he had encountered. Reflecting upon his life, Maxwell once remarked to a colleague in Cambridge, “I have been thinking how very gently I have always been dealt with. I have never had a violent shove all my life.” His final resting place is the serene Parton Kirk, near Castle Douglas in Galloway, a stone's throw from his childhood home.

In 1882, his cherished friend, Professor Lewis Campbell, chronicled Maxwell's extraordinary journey in “The Life of James Clerk Maxwell.” By 1890, Cambridge University Press celebrated his intellectual legacy by publishing his collected works in two volumes. Entrusted with the preservation of Maxwell's intellectual estate were his physician, George Edward Paget, the eminent G. G. Stokes, and Maxwell's cousin, Colin Mackenzie. Stokes, weighed down by responsibilities, later handed over the guardianship of Maxwell's papers to William Garnett.

Today, Westminster Abbey pays tribute to this giant of science with a touching memorial inscription near its choir screen.

Electromagnetism

From as early as 1855, James Clerk Maxwell had embarked on a rigorous exploration of electricity and magnetism. This journey commenced with his seminal paper, “On Faraday's lines of force,” presented to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Maxwell, in this paper, masterfully distilled Faraday's intricate theories into an intuitive model that intricately wove electricity and magnetism. He streamlined the vast expanse of knowledge into a formidable set of twenty differential equations, which were later crystallized in “On Physical Lines of Force” in 1861.

During his tenure at King's College around 1862, Maxwell made a profound discovery. He deduced that the speed at which an electromagnetic field propagates aligns closely with the speed of light. This wasn't a mere coincidence in Maxwell's eyes. He proposed a revolutionary idea: “We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.”

Maxwell's relentless curiosity led him to further refine his theories. He posited that his equations prophesied the presence of oscillating waves of electric and magnetic fields, capable of traveling through the void of space at speeds ascertainable from rudimentary electrical experiments. Remarkably, Maxwell's computations predicted a speed of approximately 310,740,000 meters per second. By 1865, he confidently penned down in “A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field” that light and magnetism seemed to be manifestations of a single unified field.

In his magnum opus, “A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism” published in 1873, the world witnessed Maxwell's iconic twenty equations in their full grandeur. The setting for this revolutionary work was the tranquil confines of Glenlair, situated between his London and Cambridge commitments. Later, Oliver Heaviside, in a bid to simplify, distilled the essence of Maxwell's theory into the four renowned Maxwell's equations, which remain foundational in electromagnetism.

Historical texts by Barrett and Grimes (1995) give insights into the progression of electromagnetic theory. Maxwell's initial representation was via the algebra of quaternions, focusing on the electromagnetic potential. By 1881, Heaviside pivoted the theory's focus towards force fields, controversially sidelining the electromagnetic potential. A subsequent intellectual tug-of-war between Heaviside and Peter Guthrie Tait underscored the ascendancy of vector analysis over quaternions, marking a shift in the narrative of electromagnetic theory.

The veracity of Maxwell's groundbreaking linkage between light and electromagnetism remains one of the pinnacle achievements in 19th-century physics. Maxwell's pioneering concepts extended to visualizing the electromagnetic field, offering a more evolved perspective than Faraday's force lines. His work suggested that light's propagation needed a medium, termed the “luminiferous aether.” As science progressed, the viability of such a pervasive yet mechanically undetectable medium became questionable. Pivotal experiments, like the Michelson–Morley experiment, cast doubts on its existence. This conceptual impasse paved the way for Albert Einstein's special relativity, which elegantly sidestepped the need for a stationary luminiferous aether.

Colour vision

James Clerk Maxwell, much like many eminent physicists of his era, harbored a deep fascination with psychology. Emulating the pursuits of Isaac Newton and Thomas Young, he was especially drawn to unraveling the mysteries of colour vision. From 1855 to 1872, Maxwell unveiled a series of groundbreaking works delving into the intricacies of colour perception, colour-blindness, and the underpinnings of colour theory. His stellar work “On the Theory of Colour Vision” earned him the prestigious Rumford Medal.

Isaac Newton, with the ingenious use of prisms, had unveiled that white light, exemplified by sunlight, is an amalgamation of several singular colors. These colors, when fused back together, recreate white light. Newton further observed that a mix of yellow and red paints could replicate the appearance of a singular orange light, even though it was a blend of two distinct colors. This birthed a perplexing question for scientists: How could two multi-colored lights look identical but possess distinct physical properties? This phenomenon was termed as “metameres.” Thomas Young proposed an answer, suggesting that colors are perceived via a limited number of channels in our eyes—specifically, three channels, leading to the trichromatic colour theory. Maxwell, with the aid of emerging linear algebra, fortified Young's hypothesis. He affirmed that any single color stimulating our three color receptors could be similarly excited by a trio of different singular colors. This understanding led him to devise the concepts of color matching experiments and Colorimetry.

Beyond theoretical applications, Maxwell sought to harness his insights into tangible technology, especially in the realm of colour photography. His investigations into color perception laid the groundwork: if every perceivable color could be replicated by a blend of three primary colors, then photos capturing the essence of true color could be created using three distinct filters. Maxwell theorized that capturing three black-and-white images of an object through red, green, and blue filters and then projecting these images using similarly colored filters would allow viewers to perceive the object in its original colors.

Maxwell's vision came to life in 1861 during a lecture at the Royal Institution on color theory. The world witnessed the maiden demonstration of color photography based on the tri-color principle. Collaborating with Thomas Sutton, the brain behind the single-lens reflex camera, Maxwell showcased the process using a tartan ribbon. The ribbon was photographed thrice—each time using red, green, and blue filters. A fourth attempt using a yellow filter was made but wasn't included in the final demonstration. Owing to the limitations of the photographic plates of that era, which struggled to capture red and were mildly sensitive to green, the end result wasn't flawless. Nevertheless, observers acknowledged that with more sensitive materials, this pioneering technique held the promise to revolutionize color photography. Later research in the 1960s proposed that the surprising success of the red-filtered shot might have been influenced by ultraviolet light—a spectrum that the red dyes reflected in abundance, wasn't completely filtered out, and was captured by Sutton's wet collodion process.

Kinetic theory and thermodynamics

James Clerk Maxwell delved deep into the kinetic theory of gases, expanding on a foundation laid by great minds before him. While the kinetic theory's roots trace back to Daniel Bernoulli, it saw significant advancements through the works of renowned scientists like John Herapath, John James Waterston, James Joule, and notably, Rudolf Clausius. Each of these contributions solidified the theory's validity. Yet, it was Maxwell who took a quantum leap in this field, showcasing his prowess not just as a theoretical mathematician but also as a hands-on experimenter, specifically concerning the laws governing gaseous friction.

During the period from 1859 to 1866, Maxwell embarked on an intellectual journey to unravel the complexities of how gas particles behave in terms of their velocities. Ludwig Boltzmann later expanded on this, leading to the formulation of what is now known as the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. This mathematical representation describes the proportion of gas molecules operating at a defined velocity for a given temperature. Diving deeper into the kinetic theory, Maxwell illuminated that the concepts of temperature and heat revolve solely around molecular motion. By adopting this perspective, he was able to refine the existing laws of thermodynamics, offering a more comprehensive explanation of experimental findings and observations.

Maxwell's explorations in thermodynamics also birthed a thought experiment that has since become an iconic part of the scientific discourse: Maxwell's demon. This hypothetical scenario imagines a sentient being capable of selectively sorting particles based on their energy, seemingly violating the second law of thermodynamics.

In 1871, Maxwell's relentless pursuit of understanding thermodynamics led to the establishment of Maxwell's thermodynamic relations. These are intricate mathematical expressions that highlight the equality among the second derivatives of the thermodynamic potentials when compared across different variables. Taking inspiration from the pioneering work of American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs, Maxwell, in 1874, created a visual representation using plaster to delve into phase transitions in thermodynamics. This was a tangible manifestation of Gibbs's graphical approach to thermodynamics, bridging the gap between abstract theory and visual comprehension.