James Clerk Maxwell

James Clerk Maxwell FRSE FRS (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a renowned Scottish physicist whose work spanned a wide array of scientific domains. He is most celebrated for formulating the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, unifying electricity, magnetism, and light as varied manifestations of the same fundamental phenomenon. This pivotal concept, encapsulated in Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism, represents one of the paramount unifications in physics, second only to the work of Isaac Newton.

In 1865, through his seminal work “A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field”, Maxwell posited that electric and magnetic fields propagate as waves at the speed of light. He further suggested that light itself is a wave within the same medium responsible for electrical and magnetic occurrences. This groundbreaking synthesis of light and electric phenomena paved the way for his prediction of radio waves. Maxwell's work also laid the cornerstone for the burgeoning field of electrical engineering.

In addition to his electromagnetic contributions, Maxwell played a key role in formulating the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, elucidating the kinetic theory of gases using statistical methods. Notably, in 1861, he introduced the world to the first long-lasting colour photograph and also made substantial contributions to the analysis of the sturdiness of trusses, akin to those employed in numerous bridges.

His pioneering work set the stage for modern physics, establishing the groundwork for revolutionary domains like special relativity and quantum mechanics. Many in the scientific community view Maxwell as the 19th-century luminary whose influence on 20th-century physics was unparalleled. His scientific contributions stand shoulder to shoulder with giants like Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. A millennium poll, surveying distinguished physicists, placed Maxwell as the third all-time greatest physicist, following only Newton and Einstein. Marking the 100th anniversary of Maxwell's birth, Einstein paid homage to his predecessor, describing his contributions as the most transformative in physics since Newton's era. During a 1922 visit to the University of Cambridge, when Einstein was commended for building on Newton's legacy, he humbly responded, “No I don't. I stand on the shoulders of Maxwell.”

Life

James Clerk Maxwell: The Early Years (1831-1839)

The birthplace of James Clerk Maxwell, located at 14 India Street in Edinburgh, has been transformed into a museum managed by the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation, commemorating his legacy.

Born on 13 June 1831 in Edinburgh, James Clerk Maxwell was the son of John Clerk Maxwell of Middlebie, a distinguished advocate, and Frances Cay, the daughter of Robert Hodshon Cay and sibling of John Cay. The Clerk family lineage from Penicuik boasted a baronetcy, with Maxwell's paternal uncle being the 6th baronet. Initially named “John Clerk”, the name “Maxwell” was appended following the inheritance of the Middlebie estate, a property in Dumfriesshire traditionally held by the Maxwells.

James's connections extended into various fields; he was a first cousin to Jemima Blackburn, a renowned artist, and the civil engineer William Dyce Cay. The bond he shared with Cay was particularly strong, evident when Cay stood beside Maxwell as his best man during his wedding.

Both of Maxwell's parents embarked on matrimony later in life. Interestingly, Frances was nearing 40 when she gave birth to James. Before him, they had a daughter, Elizabeth, whose life was tragically cut short during infancy.

The family later relocated to Glenlair in Kirkcudbrightshire, a property sprawled across 1,500 acres which the Maxwells had constructed. From a tender age, James displayed an insatiable curiosity. By three, he was captivated by anything that moved, glittered, or made a sound, constantly questioning its operation. His mother, in a note added to a letter penned by his father in 1834, captured the essence of his early wonder:

“From his youthful days, James was a beacon of happiness, showing significant improvement as the seasons turned milder. Doors, locks, and keys never ceased to fascinate him, with the phrase 'show me how it does' becoming a frequent refrain. He was relentless in his pursuit of understanding, tracing the paths of hidden streams or figuring out the mechanics of bell-wires and waterways.”

Maxwell's early years laid the foundation for a lifetime of inquiry, eventually positioning him as a towering figure in the world of science.

James Clerk Maxwell's Academic Journey (1839-1847)

In the Victorian era, it was customary for women in the household to assume the role of educators for their children, and Maxwell's mother, Frances, was no exception. Recognizing his innate brilliance, she became the guiding force behind his early lessons. By the age of eight, Maxwell had already committed to memory long excerpts from John Milton's writings and could recite the entire 119th psalm. His deep-rooted knowledge of the scriptures was evident as he could pinpoint chapter and verse of numerous psalm quotations. However, tragedy struck in December 1839 when Frances succumbed to abdominal cancer, leaving young Maxwell at the age of eight. From there, his father, accompanied by his aunt Jane, became the stewards of his academic path.

Initially, Maxwell's educational journey had its stumbling blocks. His first tutor, a young 16-year-old, proved ineffectual, often rebuking Maxwell for perceived slowness. This unfortunate arrangement was short-lived, ending in 1841. A pivotal moment in Maxwell's early exposure to science occurred when his father introduced him to Robert Davidson's demonstration on electric propulsion and magnetic forces in 1842.

Subsequently, Maxwell was enrolled at the esteemed Edinburgh Academy. During his schooling years, he resided with his aunt Isabella. While there, his cousin Jemima fueled his love for drawing. Young Maxwell faced challenges integrating into the school's environment, largely due to his rural upbringing and distinct Galloway accent. His homemade attire on his first school day earned him the nickname “Daftie”, which he bore gracefully over the years. However, this phase of isolation ended when he forged bonds with peers Lewis Campbell and Peter Guthrie Tait—both destined for scholarly greatness—forming friendships that lasted a lifetime.

From an early age, Maxwell showcased a proclivity for geometry, even decoding the mysteries of regular polyhedra before any formal education on the topic. Though his inherent talent remained under the radar initially, by 13, he clinched the school's top honors in mathematics, English, and poetry. Maxwell's academic pursuits transcended the confines of a typical curriculum, often sidelining exam preparations in favor of broader learning. This academic curiosity culminated in him authoring a scientific paper at just 14, proposing a mechanical method for sketching mathematical curves using twine. This paper, “On the description of oval curves and those having a plurality of foci”, was submitted to the Royal Society of Edinburgh on his behalf since his tender age prevented him from doing so personally. While Maxwell's exploration on multifocal ellipses was not the first of its kind—René Descartes had broached the topic in the 17th century—Maxwell's approach streamlined their depiction.

University of Edinburgh, 1847–1850

At a youthful age of 16, Maxwell wrapped up his studies at the Academy and embarked on his academic journey at the University of Edinburgh. While he had a golden opportunity to study at the renowned University of Cambridge, Maxwell chose to stay committed to Edinburgh for his undergraduate pursuits. His learning was enriched by the presence of esteemed scholars: under the tutelage of Sir William Hamilton, he delved into logic and metaphysics; Philip Kelland illuminated the path of mathematics for him, and James Forbes introduced him to the wonders of natural philosophy. Given Maxwell's prodigious intellect, the courses weren’t particularly challenging, which granted him ample free time. He utilized this period for self-driven research, especially during his visits to his ancestral home, Glenlair.

In Glenlair, a world of experimentation awaited Maxwell. He dabbled in rudimentary chemical, electric, and magnetic experiments. However, his predominant intrigue lay in the realm of polarized light. Using intricately crafted gelatine blocks and a set of polarizing prisms—a generous gift from William Nicol—he observed mesmerizing color patterns within the gelatine. This endeavor led him to the groundbreaking discovery of photoelasticity, a novel technique to discern stress patterns within various materials.

By the age of 18, Maxwell's scholarly prowess was evident. He authored two papers for the distinguished Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. One, focusing on the equilibrium of elastic solids, would later be the bedrock for his revelation about the temporary double refraction in viscous liquids when subjected to shear stress. His other work on “Rolling Curves” echoed his earlier research endeavors. Due to his young age, he was deemed a tad too green to present his research personally. Thus, his mentor, Kelland, proudly showcased Maxwell's genius to the Royal Society on his behalf.

University of Cambridge, 1850–1856

In 1850, the budding mathematician James Maxwell set his sights beyond Scotland and ventured to the University of Cambridge. Initially, he enrolled at Peterhouse but soon found himself transferring to Trinity, believing it would pave a smoother path to a fellowship. While at Trinity, he became a member of the Cambridge Apostles, a clandestine society for the intellectual crème de la crème. It was here, through debates and essays, that he extensively explored the interrelation between his Christian faith and scientific understanding.

Maxwell was unyielding in his quest for knowledge, advocating for an unprejudiced examination of all subjects. He believed that Christianity, in its truest form, offered unparalleled freedom of exploration and was devoid of restrictive taboos. He expressed concern that many perceived the Old Testament as “tabooed,” and he looked forward to a time when enlightened understanding would banish unfounded fears and misconceptions.

One summer, Maxwell spent time recuperating from illness at the Suffolk residence of Rev C.B. Tayler. Profoundly influenced by the family's devout love for God, he felt a renewed sense of purpose. This transformative period was evident in his letters where he introspectively wrote about his spiritual struggles and the refuge he found in science, society, and ultimately, in God.

During his time at Cambridge, he trained under the mentorship of William Hopkins, renowned for grooming mathematical prodigies. In 1854, Maxwell's brilliance was evident when he graduated second in his class, narrowly missing the top spot to Edward Routh. However, in the rigorous Smith's Prize examination, the two were deemed equals. Post-graduation, Maxwell read one of his rare mathematical papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Society, reflecting his evolving reputation as a mathematician.

Opting to stay at Trinity, Maxwell sought a fellowship. While the process was typically lengthy, his undeniable talent ensured his relative freedom to delve into his scientific passions. One such interest was the nature of color, a subject he had begun exploring under the guidance of James Forbes at Edinburgh. Using Forbes' innovative colored tops, Maxwell illustrated that white light was a fusion of red, green, and blue light. His findings were later presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, with Maxwell himself taking the podium.

By October 1855, in a departure from tradition, Maxwell was promptly named a fellow of Trinity. Tasked with preparing lectures on various subjects, his growing reputation attracted attention. Encouraged by Forbes, Maxwell applied for a prestigious position at Marischal College in Aberdeen. Unfortunately, during this pivotal period, Maxwell's father passed away, never knowing that his son would soon secure the esteemed professorship at Aberdeen, a position he assumed in late 1856.

Marischal College, Aberdeen, 1856–1860

At the youthful age of 25, James Clerk Maxwell was an anomaly at Marischal College, being at least a decade and a half younger than any other professor there. Undaunted by this age gap, he enthusiastically embraced his role, meticulously designing the syllabus and prepping lectures. Impressively, he dedicated 15 hours each week to lecturing, which included offering a complimentary lecture to the local workers' college. During the academic year, Maxwell resided in Aberdeen alongside his cousin, the civil engineer William Dyce Cay. The idyllic summers were spent at Glenlair, a legacy from his late father.

Maxwell's gaze was soon drawn to a celestial mystery that had baffled scientists for centuries: the very nature of Saturn's rings. Their continued stability was an enigma, raising questions about why they didn’t disintegrate, stray, or descend into Saturn. This very problem was aptly chosen as the subject for the 1857 Adams Prize by St John's College, Cambridge. Immersing himself in this challenge, Maxwell ingeniously deduced that a singular solid ring wouldn't be stable, and a fluid one would fragment into droplets. Observing neither phenomenon, he theorized that the rings were an assembly of countless tiny particles, each orbiting Saturn independently. Maxwell's ground-breaking essay on the topic secured him the Adams Prize in 1859. His conclusions were so compelling that the famed astronomer George Biddell Airy remarked on the unparalleled application of mathematics to the physical world. Maxwell's hypotheses stood unchallenged until the 1980s, when Voyager's observations vindicated his theory. However, recent understandings indicate that Saturn's gravitational pull is slowly consuming these ring particles, predicting their complete dissolution in about 300 million years.

1857 also marked the beginning of a heartwarming chapter in Maxwell's life. Introduced to Katherine Mary Dewar through her father, the Reverend Daniel Dewar, Maxwell soon found himself smitten. Despite their seven-year age gap, with Katherine being the elder, the duo got engaged in early 1858 and exchanged vows that June in Aberdeen. The couple shared more than marital bonds; Katherine actively participated in Maxwell's scientific endeavors, particularly in viscosity experiments. Described as a marriage of “unparalleled devotion” by Maxwell’s biographer, Lewis Campbell, much about Katherine remains a mystery.

By 1860, an institutional merger between Marischal College and King's College birthed the University of Aberdeen. This consolidation left no room for two Natural Philosophy professors, and despite Maxwell's soaring scientific repute, he faced redundancy. His attempt to secure a position at Edinburgh was thwarted, but fortune favored him with the Chair of Natural Philosophy at King's College, London. Surviving a harrowing bout of smallpox that same year, he, alongside his wife, relocated to London.